(SAMPLE)anatomy of reversENGLISH

= How this book is composed = = 01 =　 = 02 =　 = 03 =
＜INTRODUCTION to anatomy of reversENGLISH＞
　This book is a never-before-seen attempt at visualizing the process of English interpretation. Although most of our daily conversation and mechanically recited words and phrases by poor actors and the second-rate narrators simply develop as pure sounds in our ears, consciously understood English is visually seen through our mind's eye. Even those who are linguistically blind could still get used more or less to the very simplest of daily give-and-take conversation in English; but truly meaningful English could only be taken in by those who can see through its semantic structure with anatomically scrutinizing eyes. Those who can see can really command English; those who can just hear can't actually go anywhere. This book may take you somewhere you have never dreamt of going before. After you've seen it you will never be the same again. Although it is primarily written as a visual aid to "reversEnglish (でんぐリングリッシュ)", a guidebook for Japanese students on how to master English written in English, it may also serve as an eye-opener for those who can only hear and say what they hear said but can't really command English the way those who can see deal with it. You'd be well-advised to check and see for yourself, with your own eyes, not through idle hearsay.
＜でんぐリングリッシュ解剖編　ごあいさつ＞
本書は、英文解釈のプロセスを（未だかつて誰も見たことのないような形で）可視化しようとするユニークな試みである。日常会話の大部分も、大根役者や二流朗読者の棒読みする単語や言い回しのほとんども、耳に流れるただの音として展開するばかりだが、意識して理解する英語というものは、我々の心の目を通して視覚的に認識されるものである。言語学的に盲目の人々でも、ポンポン飛び交う日常的英会話（の最も単純なもの）ならば（ある程度は）慣れることもできるだろうが、真に意味ある英語を理解できるのは、その意味構造を解剖学的視点で吟味し見通す目を持った人々だけである。意味を見抜く眼力を持つ人々のみが、真の英語使いたり得るのだ。漫然と聞く耳しか持たぬのではまるでラチが開かない、というのが実際のところなのである。本書を通して諸君はいまだかつて夢想だにしなかった境地に到達できるかもしれない。本書を見る前と後とでは、諸君は別人になっているにちがいない。本書は本来『reversEnglish (でんぐリングリッシュ)』（日本人学生のために英語で書かれた英語修得の方法論の指南書）の「視覚的補助教材」として書かれたものではあるが、英語を耳で聞いては又聞きの口ずさみに終始するばかりで、「吟味する目」を持つ人々並みには英語を真に使いこなせずにいる人々にとってもまた、本書は「開眼の書」たり得る可能性を秘めている。諸君も、安易な又聞きに頼らずに自分の目を通して実際本書の中身を見て独自に確認してみるのが賢明というものだろう。

＜INTRODUCTION to anatomy of reversENGLISH＞

(S) < This book > (V) is (C) 『 a { never-before-seen } ^(id)attempt at_| < ‡(V) visualizing‡ (O) « the process of < English interpretation > » > 』. Although (S) < ^(id)most of_| < ^{( １ )}our daily conversation and ^{( ２ )}^(*){ ( mechanically ) recited } ⁽¹⁾words and ⁽²⁾phrases ( ^(*)by ⁽¹⁾< { poor } actors > and ⁽²⁾< { the second-rate } narrators > ) > > ( simply ) (V) develop ( as < pure sounds ( in < our ears > ) > ), / (S) < { ( consciously ) understood } English > ＼ (aV) is ( visually ) (V) seen ／ ( through < our mind's eye > ). ( Even ) (S) < ^{^}those^{^} { (S) < ^{^}who^{^} > (V) are (C) 『 ( linguistically ) blind 』 } > (aV) could ( still ) ＼ (V) get (V) used 〘 ^(id)more or less_| 〙 to ／ < ^(id)the very_| simplest of < daily { give-and-take } conversation ( in < English > ) > >; but (S) < { ( truly ) meaningful } English > (aV) could ( ^{^}only^{^} ) ＼ (aV) be ^(id)(V) taken in_| ／ ( ^{^}by^{^} ^{^}those^{^} { (S) < ^{^}who^{^} > (aV) can ^(id)(V) see through_| < its semantic structure > ( with < { ( anatomically ) scrutinizing } eyes > ) } ). (S) < ^{^}Those^{^} { (S) < ^{^}who^{^} > (aV) can (V) see } > (aV) can ( really ) (V) command (O) « English »; ^{^}those^{^} { (S) < ^{^}who^{^} > (aV) can ( just ) (V) hear } ^(id)(aV) can't ( actually ) (V) go ( anywhere )_|. (S) < This book > (aV) may (V) take (O) « you »( ◎somewhere { [ ( that ) ] (S) < you > ↑ (aV) have never ^(id)(V) dreamt of_| ↑ < ‡(V) going‡ > ( before ) } ). ( After (S) < you > ↑ (aV) 've (V) seen ↑ (O) « it » ) (S) < you > (aV) may never (V) be (C) 『 the same 』 ( again ). ( Although (S) < it > ＼ (aV) is ( primarily ) (V) written ／ ( as < ^(w)a { visual } aid to_| < "reversEnglish (でんぐリングリッシュ)", [ (S) < which > (V) is ] (C) 『 ◎a guidebook ⁽¹⁾{ for < Japanese students > } ⁽²⁾{ on < how to (V) master (O) « English » > } ⁽³⁾{ [ (S) < which > ＼ (aV) is ] ] (V) written ／ ( in < English > ) } 』 > > ) ), (S) < it > (aV) may ( also ) (V) serve ( as < an eye-opener for < ^{^}those^{^} { ^(*)(S) < ^{^}who^{^} > ^{( １ )}^(*)(aV) can ( only ) ⁽¹⁾(V) hear and ⁽²⁾(V) say ^(*)(O) « (O) « what » (S) < they > (V) hear (C) 『＼ (V) said ／』 » but ^{( ２ )}(aV) ca^{^}n't^{^} ^{^}really^{^} (V) command (O) « English » ( ◎the way { [ ( in < which > ) ] (S) < ^{^}those^{^} { (S) < ^{^}who^{^} > (aV) can (V) see } > ^(id)(V) deal with_| < it > } ) } > > ). (S) < You >^(id)(aV) 'd (V) be (C) 『 well-advised 』 to_| ^(id)(V) check and( = to ) (V) see_| ⁽¹⁾( ^(id)for < yourself >_| ), ⁽²⁾with < your own eyes >, not ⁽³⁾( through < idle hearsay > ).

＜legends of anatomy（解剖学的解釈記号一覧）＞

＝4 main elements of a sentence（文の４大主要素）＝
(S) < （Ｓ）subject(＝主語) >
(V) （Ｖ）verb（＝動詞）
(O) « （Ｏ）object（＝動詞の目的語） »
(C) 『（Ｃ）complement（＝補語）』

　　　＝subsidiary elements of a sentence（文の副次的要素）＝
　　　(aV) （auxv）auxiliary verb（＝助動詞）
　　　< (po)prepositional object（＝前置詞の目的語） >

　　　　＝accessory elements of a sentence（文の装飾的要素）＝
　　　　( adverb（＝副詞） )
　　　　{ adjective（＝形容詞） }

　　　　　＝particular combination of words and phrases（語句の個別的連携）＝
　　　　　^(id)idiomatic expression_|（＝熟語的表現）
　　　　　^(w)specific word / phrase_|（＝定型句）
　　　　　^{^}correlative^{^} ― ^{^}expression^{^}（＝相関表現）

　＝semantic / grammatical units（意味別・文法別構成要素）＝
　◎antecedent / words modified by adjective（＝先行詞／形容詞被修飾成文）
　{ relative (pronoun/adverb/adjective) clause }（＝関係代名詞／副詞／形容詞節）
　comparison（＝比較）
　components ^(*)of ⁽¹⁾common-⁽²⁾relation（＝共通構文構成要素）
　[ omittable elements ]（＝省略可能成文）
　[ ellipsis ]（＝被省略成文補足）
　〘 parenthesis 〙（＝挿入成文）
　paraphrase( = to put it another way )（＝換言）
　　　　＝modal units（様相別成文）＝
　　　　＼ passive voice ／（＝受動態）
　　　　 ↑ perfect tense ↑ （＝完了形）
　　　　 | progressive form | （＝進行形）
　　　　　　†present participle†（＝現在分詞）
　　　　　　‡gerund‡（＝動名詞）

= How this book is composed = = 01 =　 = 02 =　 = 03 =

ReversENGLISH
◎the way { [ in < which > ] (S) < { English illiterate } Japanese > (V) feel }
vs. ◎the way { [ in < which > ] (S) < { English capable } people > (V) think }

by Jaugo Noto
Beneath < Umbrella of < ZUBARAIE LLC. > >
http://zubaraie.com

― How (S) < this book > ＼ (aV) is (V) composed ／ ―

(S) < This > (V) is (C) 『 ◎a book ^{( １ )}{ ⁽¹⁾on 〘 (and ⁽²⁾in) 〙 ^(*)< English > ^{( ２ )}{ for < ⁽¹⁾starters and ⁽²⁾restarters > 〘 (especially the latter( = restarters )) 〙 } } ^{( ３ )}{ to ^{^}(V) enable^{^} (O) « them » (C) 『 ^{^}to^{^} ^(*)(V) have ⁽¹⁾(O) « a clear-cut image of < (O) « what » (S) < they > | (aV) are (V) studying | > », ⁽²⁾(O) « ^(id)a { reliable } set of_| ◎methodology { to (V) guide (O) « them » to < English mastery > } », and ⁽³⁾(O) « ◎a mental attitude [ (S) < which > (V) is ] (C) 『 ^(id)common to_| < ◎all ^{^}those^{^} { (S) < ^{^}who^{^} > ^(id)(V) succeed in_| < linguistic studies > } > 』 » 』 }... / ( ^(id)in { conscious } contrast to_| < ◎the ⁽¹⁾{ time-honored } 〘 (and ⁽²⁾{ corpse-ridden }) 〙 ^(*)way [ in < which > ] (S) < the Japanese > ( generally ) (V) fail in < ‡(V) mastering‡ (O) « English » > > ), / ( ^(*)[ with ] < ⁽¹⁾(S) < the original English sentences > [ ＼ (aV) being (V) placed ／ ] ( ^(id)on the left_| ) and ⁽²⁾(S) < Japanese translation > [ ＼ (aV) being (V) placed ／ ] ( ^(id)on the right_| ) > ) 』. ( Hence ) [ (V) comes ] (S) < the title of < ◎"ReversENGLISH (でんぐリングリッシュ:DENGLENGLISH)" >, { ^(*)†(V) meaning†( = (S) < which > (V) means ) ⁽¹⁾(O) « "ENGLISH { UPSIDE DOWN }" » or ⁽²⁾(O) « "A ^(w)Copernican revolution_| in < your { English ‡studying‡ } attitude" > » } >.
 (S) < This book > (V) is (C) 『 ^(id)full of_| < { ( quite ) bookish } ^(*)knowledge ⁽¹⁾{ about < English > }, ^(id)or rather_|, ⁽²⁾{ about < ‡(V) studying‡ (O) « English » > > } 』. (S) < It > (V) is (C) 『 no ◎workbook { ^(id)full of_| < ◎practice { to ⁽¹⁾(V) introduce and ⁽²⁾(V) inure ^(*)(O) « you » to < actual English usage > } > } 』, ( nor ) (V) is (S) < it > (S) < ^(id)a kind of_| < ◎"^(w)placebo_|" { †(V) giving†( = (S) < which > (V) gives ) (O) « you » (O) « a ⁽¹⁾{ sweet } 〘 (but ⁽²⁾{ vain }) 〙 ^(*)hope of < English mastery > » ( through < ( incredibly ) ^(id){ small } numbers of_| < magical formulas > > ) } > >.
 (S) < This book ( alone ) > (aV) does not ^{^}(V) enable^{^} (O) « you » (C) 『 ^{^}to^{^} (V) command (O) « English » 』; (S) < it > ^{^}(V) enables^{^} (O) « you » (C) 『 ^{^}to^{^} ( correctly ) ⁽¹⁾(V) study 〘 (and ( consequently ) ⁽²⁾(V) master ( eventually )) 〙 ^(*)(O) « English » 』. (S) < It > (V) shows (O) « you » (O) « a summary of < ^(*)(O) « what » (S) < all Japanese ^(w)junior high school_| graduates > ⁽¹⁾(aV) should ↑ (aV) have (V) known ↑ 〘 (^(id)at least_|, ⁽²⁾(aV) should ↑ (aV) have ＼ (aV) been (V) taught ／ ↑ ) 〙 > » / but (S) < it > (aV) does not (V) expound (O) « such knowledge » ( ^(id)in detail_| ). (S) < It > ( only ) (V) shows (O) « you » (O) « (O) « what » to ^{^}(V) make^{^} ^{^}of^{^} < ◎^{^}those^{^} separate ^(id)pieces of_| knowledge { [ (O) « ^{^}which^{^} » ] ^(*)(S) < you > ⁽¹⁾ ↑ (aV) have ＼ (aV) been ／ ↑ 〘 (or ⁽²⁾ ＼ (aV) are | (aV) being | ／ ) 〙 ^(*)(V) taught ( at < school > ) } > ». (S) < It > (V) shows (O) « you » (O) « "^(w)a big picture_|" of < the world of < English > > », / ^(id)instead of_| < ‡(V) telling‡ (O) « you » (O) « ◎{ what } pigments { to (V) use ( to (V) draw (O) « some particular corners of < the world > » ) } » >.
 (S) < This book > ＼ ^(id)(aV) is (V) composed of_| ／ < eighteen(18) sections >. (S) < The first one > (V) is (C) 『 ( purely ) introductory 』, ^(id)a sort of_| < ^(w)preface to_| < the book > >. (S) < The following ten(10) sections (2 ― 11) > (aV) will (V) give (O) « you » (O) « a general view of < ⁽¹⁾(O) « what » and ⁽²⁾how ^(*)(S) < you > (V) study ( ^(id)at the onset of_| < your { English ‡studying‡ } career > ) > ». (S) < A complete beginner in < English > > 〘 (^(w)the 1st grader_| ( in < ^(w)a junior high school_| ) ( in < Japan > ) >) 〙 (aV) may ( still ) (V) find (O) « them » (C) 『 intangible 』, / while (S) < others > 〘 (( especially ) restarters) 〙 (aV) will (V) find (O) « them » (C) 『 ( confidently ) familiar 』, ( [ (V) being ] (C) 『 assured 』 [ that ] (S) < they > ↑ (aV) have not (V) missed ↑ (O) « much » ( in < their past ^(id)attempts at_| < English mastery > > ) )... ( [ even ] if (S) < they > ↑ (aV) have [ (V) missed (O) « much » ] ↑ ), (S) < they > ^{^}have only to^{^} ⁽¹⁾^(id)(V) read through_| < these 10 sections > and ⁽²⁾^{^}(V) try^{^} (O) « ‡(V) review^{^}ing^{^}‡ (O) « their old English textbooks » » ^{^}to^{^} (V) get (C) 『 ( comfortably ) reassured 』.
 (S) < The next four(4) sections (12 ― 15) > (aV) will ^{^}(V) lecture^{^} (O) « you » not so much ( ^{^}on^{^} < ^(*){ particular } ⁽¹⁾facts and ⁽²⁾knowledge ^(*)of < English > > ) as ( ^{^}on^{^} < ◎desirable attitudes { to ^{^}(V) enable^{^} (O) « you » (C) 『 ^{^}to^{^} (V) master (O) « this language » 』 } > ). ( Though [ (S) < they > ^(*)(V) are ] ⁽¹⁾(C) 『 ( rather ) abstract 』 and ⁽²⁾(C) 『 ( partly ) difficult ( for < beginners > ) 』 ), (S) < all Japanese students of < English > > ^(id)(aV) would (V) be (C) 『 well-advised 』 to_| (V) read (O) « these instructions » ( first ). (S) < Most readers > (aV) may (V) find (O) « themselves » (C) 『 ( shockingly ) ^(id)averse to_| < ^(id)most of_| < (O) « what » (S) < the author > (V) says ( in < these sections > ) > > 』; ( then( = if so ) ), (S) < that > (V) is (C) 『 [ ◎the point ] { where( = at < which > ) (S) < the ^{^}difference^{^} > (V) lies ( ^{^}between^{^} < you > ^{^}and^{^} < ◎me, { (S) < who > ↑ ^(*)(aV) have ⁽¹⁾(V) written ↑ (O) « this book » ( in < English language > ) and ↑ ⁽²⁾(V) offered ↑ (O) « Japanese translation » ( for (S) < you > to (V) follow (O) « me » ) } ) > } 』.
 (S) < The last three(3) sections (16 ― 18) > (aV) will ^(id)(V) focus on_| < how to ^(id)(V) make (O) « the best [ use ] » of_| < ^(w)‡learning‡ materials_| ― ⁽¹⁾dictionaries, ⁽²⁾typewriters, and ⁽³⁾textbooks > >. ( Although (S) < some Japanese > (aV) may (V) find (O) « section 16 (on < ^(*)the ⁽¹⁾electric dictionary and ⁽²⁾^(w)personal computer_| >) and 17 (on < ^(*)the ⁽¹⁾^(w)typewriter_| or ⁽²⁾^(w)word-processor_| >) » (C) 『 ^(id)irrelevant to_| < themselves > 』 ), (S) < this author > (V) ( strongly ) recommends (O) « you » (C) 『 ^(*)to ⁽¹⁾(V) read (O) « them » and ⁽²⁾(V) reconsider (O) « your attitudes » ( accordingly ) 』. (S) < The last section (18) > ⁽¹⁾(aV) will ＼ (aV) be (V) found ／ (C) 『 [ to (V) be ] (C) 『 most shocking 』』 ( by < most ^(*){ Japanese } ⁽¹⁾students and ⁽²⁾teachers > ), and( = and yet ) ⁽²⁾(aV) will (V) be (C) 『 ^(id)of { the greatest } help_| 』 ( to < ◎^{^}those^{^} { (S) < ^{^}who^{^} > (V) get (O) « the message » ( right ) } > ).
 ( ^(id)All in all_| ), (S) < this book > (V) is more (C) 『 ◎guideposts { standing( = (S) < which > (V) stand ) ( at < the most critical points ) > } 』 than (C) 『 a ^(*){ constant } ⁽¹⁾guide or ⁽²⁾attendant ( ^(*)in < your journey to < English mastery > > ) 』. ( Though (S) < it > (aV) will not (V) accompany (O) « you » ( ^(id)all the way_| ) ), (S) < it > (V) shows (O) « you » ^{( １ )}(O) « ◎the right direction { [ in < which > ] (S) < you > (aV) should (V) go } » and ^{( ２ )}(O) « ◎the correct methodology { for (S) < you > to (V) follow ( ^(id)at the ( very ) beginning of_| < your ^(id)attempt at_| < ⁽¹⁾‡(V) conquering‡ 〘 (or ⁽²⁾^(id)‡(V) revenging‡ on_|) 〙 ^(*)(O) « < English > » > > ) } ». ^{^}(V) Take^{^} (O) « a wrong step », ^{^}and^{^} (S) < you > ^(id)(V) are (C) 『 sure to_|_| ^(id)(V) go ( astray )_| 』. ( If (S) < you > ^(id)want to_| (V) reach (O) « your desired goal » ), ^(id)(V) read through_| < this book > and (V) take (O) « the right step » ( ^(id)at the start of_| < your ^(*){ English } ⁽¹⁾studying 〘 (or ⁽²⁾re-studying) 〙 ^(*)career > ). ^(w)Bon voyage_|( = (V) Have (O) « a nice trip » ).

October 18, 2012
Jaugo Noto(之人冗悟:のと・じゃうご)
Beneath < Umbrella of < ZUBARAIE LLC. > >
http://zubaraie.com

...addition… ( There ) (V) is (S) < ◎^(id){ another } version of_| < this book > { ^(id)†(V) consisting†( = (S) < which > (V) consists ) ( entirely ) of_| < ANATOMICAL INTERPRETATION for < ^(w)each and every_| sentence of < it > > > } >. (V) See (O) « it »( = THIS BOOK: Anatomy of reversENGLISH ) ( to (V) gaze into < the lucid mind’s image of < { ENGLISH LITERATE } intellectuals > > ).

= How this book is composed = = 01 =　 = 02 =　 = 03 =

1.(S) < School ^(w)‡teaching‡ curricula_| > ＼ (aV) are (V) made ／
( ( exclusively ) ⁽¹⁾for < ⁽¹⁾teachers and ⁽²⁾schools > ), not ( ⁽²⁾for < learners > )

(S) < ◎The first thing { for (S) < English learners ( in < Japan > ) > to (V) consider } > (V) is (C) 『 ^(id)◎the last thing_| { (O) « [ that ] » (S) < any ordinary teacher > (aV) would ( ever ) (V) teach (O) « you » } 』: NEVER ^{^}(V) put^{^} (O) « easy ^{^}trust in^{^} < your teachers' curricula > », / for (S) < they > ＼ (aV) are (V) made ／ ⁽¹⁾^(id)for the convenience of_| < ⁽¹⁾teachers or ⁽²⁾schools >, not ⁽²⁾^(id)for the benefit of_| < learners >.
 (S) < A school's basic functions > (V) are (C) 『 twofold 』. ( ^(w)First and foremost_| ), (S) < it > (aV) should (V) be (C) 『 ◎a place { for (S) < learners > to ^(*)(V) acquire (O) « ⁽¹⁾knowledge and ⁽²⁾skill » } 』. ( ^(id)Secondary to_| < the ^(*){ first } { ⁽¹⁾‡learning‡ and ⁽²⁾‡teaching‡ } ^(*)function > ), (S) < a school > (V) is (C) 『 ◎a place { for (S) < teachers > to (V) give (O) « grades » ( to < learners > ) } 』. (S) < Good grades ( at < schools > ) > (V) give (O) « ^(w)social grace_| ( to < learners > ) ». (S) < Poor marks ( in < exams > ) > ^{^}(V) encourage^{^} (O) « idle learners ( ^{^}into^{^} ‡(V) studying‡ ( harder ) ) ». (S) < Schools > (V) maintain (O) « such social interactivity » ( ^(id)on the strength of_| < their function ( as < grade providers > ) > ). ( Therefore ), (S) < schools > (aV) must (V) have (O) « criteria { for < ‡(V) deciding‡ (O) « (O) « { what } grades » to (V) provide ( to < learners > ) » > } ». ( When (S) < schools > (V) prepare (O) « ^(w)‡teaching‡ materials_| » ), ⁽¹⁾(S) < fragmentation >, ⁽²⁾(S) < separation > and ⁽³⁾(S) < ‡grouping‡ > ^(*)of < ◎things { to (V) teach } > ＼ (aV) are (V) made ／ . (S) < They > ＼ (aV) are (V) divided ／ ( into < such small parts > ) ( ( just ) ^{^}in order for^{^} (S) < teachers > ^{^}to^{^} (V) ( efficiently ) judge (O) « the performance of < learners > » ). ( If (S) < 8 ( ^(id)out of_| < 10 ◎things { to (V) master } > ) > ＼ (aV) are (V) shown ／〘 in < an exam > 〙 to ↑ (aV) have ＼ (aV) been ( successfully ) (V) acquired ／ ↑ ( by < a particular learner > ) ), (S) < ◎the grade { to ＼ (aV) be (V) provided ／ } > (aV) should (V) be (C) 『 EXCELLENT 』; (S) < two ( ^(id)out of_| < ten > ) > (aV) should ＼ (aV) be ( shamefully ) ^(id)(V) branded as_| ／ < FAILURE >.
 ( If (S) < mastery of < English > > (V) is (C) 『 the real goal 』 ), ( however ), (S) < ◎anything { less than < PERFECT > } ― ◎10 things { ＼ (V) mastered ／ ( ^(id)out of_| < ◎10 things { ＼ (V) taught ／ } > ) } ― > (aV) should not ＼ (aV) be (V) accepted ／ . ( ^(id)In actuality_| ), (S) < schools > (V) give (O) « ^{^}such^{^} benevolent grades ^{^}as^{^} < ⁽¹⁾^(w)SATISFACTORY_| or ⁽²⁾^(w)AVERAGE_| or ⁽³⁾^(w)PASSING_| > ( to < ◎learners { (S) < who > (V) ( ^{^}only^{^} ) marked (O) « ⁽¹⁾^{^}5^{^} or ⁽²⁾^{^}6^{^} ^(*)( ^(id)out of_| < 10 > ) » } > ) ». (S) < FAILURE ( of < learners > ) > (V) brings (O) « shame » ( to < schools > ) ( too ), ^(id)so that_| (S) < schools > ^(id)have ^(*)to_| ⁽¹⁾^{^}(V) brand^{^} ( even ) (O) « { ^(w)BELOW AVERAGE_| } learners » ( ^{^}as^{^} < ^(w)CONDITIONALLY PASSED_| > ) and ⁽²⁾(aV) let (O) « such ^(w)low achievers_| » ^(id)(V) get (C) 『 away 』 with it_|; 〘 or (aV) should (S) < we > (V) say 〙, ( just ) ⁽³⁾^(id)(V) get (C) 『 rid of_|_| < such encumbrances > 』.
 ( In < the world of < English grammar > > ), (S) < some things > (aV) should, 〘 logically 〙, ＼ (aV) be ^(*)( collectively ) ⁽¹⁾(V) taught and ⁽²⁾(V) comprehended ／ ( ⁽¹⁾in < one ^(id)set of_| < knowledge > >, not ⁽²⁾^(id)in < { many } { separate } pieces_| > ), ( (C) 『 ^(*)however ⁽¹⁾tough and ⁽²⁾daunting 』 (S) < they > (aV) may ( ^(id)at first_| ) (V) appear ). (S) < They > ＼ (aV) can't, ( ^(id)of course_| ), (aV) be (V) mastered ／ ( ^(id)at a time_| ). But (S) < to (V) offer (O) « such { ( essentially ) collective } ^(id)set of_| < knowledge > » ( ^(id)in { ( too ) many ( seemingly ) unrelated } fragments_| ) > (aV) will ( only ) (V) make (O) « their mastery » (C) 『 all ^{^}the^{^} more difficult 』 ( ^{^}for^{^} < the number of ⁽¹⁾< separate lessons > and ⁽²⁾< the lapse of < time ( between < them > ) > > > ).
 ^{^}(V) Take^{^}, ( ^{^}^(id)for example_|^{^} ), (O) « the subject of < ^(w)tense_| > ». ( In < English > ), (S) < they > (V) have (O) « the ⁽¹⁾^(w)past tense_|, ⁽²⁾^(w)present tense_|, ⁽³⁾^(w)future tense_| and ⁽⁴⁾^(w)perfect tense_| ». While (S) < ^(w)the perfect tense_| > ＼ (aV) is ( further ) ^(id)(V) divided into_| < ⁽¹⁾^(w)the present perfect_|, ⁽²⁾^(w)the past perfect_| and ⁽³⁾^(w)the future perfect_| > ／ , / (S) < ^(w)the past perfect tense_| > ＼ (aV) is ( intricately ) ^(id)(V) associated with_| ／ < ^(w)subjunctive mood_| >. (S) < These temporal elements of < English > > (aV) may (V) seem (C) 『 [ to (V) be ] (C) 『 ^{^}too^{^} ◎complicated { ^{^}to^{^} ⁽¹⁾(V) teach and ⁽²⁾(V) master ( ^(id)at a time_| ) } 』』. But (S) < ^{( １ )}perfect ^{^}separation^{^} of < ^(w)the ⁽¹⁾{ present } ^(*)^(w)tense_|_| ^{^}from^{^} < ⁽²⁾{ future } or ⁽³⁾{ past } > > and ^{( ２ )}‡^{^}(V) spending^{^}‡ (O) « several months of < lessons > » ( ( solely ) ^{^}in^{^} < ^(w)the present tense_| > ) ( ^(id)at the { total } exclusion of_| < ^(w)^(*)the ⁽¹⁾{ past } or ⁽²⁾{ future } ^(*)tense_| > ) > ^(id)(V) makes (O) « ^{^}no^{^} sense »_| ( ^{^}^(id)at all_|^{^} ) ( ^(id)from { logical } point of view_| ). ( ^(id)From { practical } point of view_| ( ^(id)on the side ^(*)of_| < ⁽¹⁾teachers and ⁽²⁾schools > ) ), ( however ), (S) < such nonsensical separations > ^(id)(V) make { perfect } (O) « sense »_|: (S) < they > (V) make (O) « ^{^}it^{^} » (C) 『 easier 』 ^{^}^(*)to^{^} ⁽¹⁾(V) judge (O) « the performance of < learners > » and ⁽²⁾(V) give (O) « them » (O) « grades » ( accordingly ). ( ^{^}If^{^} (S) < ^(*)the ⁽¹⁾past, ⁽²⁾present and ⁽³⁾future > ^(id)were to_| ＼ (aV) be ^(id)(V) dealt with_| ／ ( ^(id)at a time_| ), ( just like [ (S) < they > ＼ (aV) are (V) dealt with ／ ] in < the world of < { ( actually ) spoken } English > > ) ), ( there ) (V) (aV) would (V) be (S) < chaos > ( in < classrooms > ) ( for < ◎^(*){ some }⁽¹⁾weeks or ⁽²⁾months >, ( during < { which } time > ) (S) < no exact grades > (aV) could ＼ (aV) be (V) awarded ／ ( to < learners > ) ( ^(id)according to_| < their respective performance > ) ). (S) < ^{^}It^{^} > (V) is, ( therefore ), (C) 『 logical 』 ^{^}for^{^} (S) < teachers > ^{^}to^{^} ^{^}(V) separate^{^} (O) « ^(*)the ⁽¹⁾{ past } and ⁽²⁾{ future } » ^{^}from^{^} < ^(w)the ⁽³⁾{ present } ^(*)tense_| >, ( ^(id)with ◎the result { that_|_| (S) < ^(*)the ⁽¹⁾{ future } and ⁽²⁾{ past } ^(*)tenses > ( in < Japanese ‡teaching‡ of < English > > ) (V) have (O) « their presence » ( with < considerable ^(w)time lag_| ( after < ^(w)the present tense_| > ) > ) } ).
 ( If ^{^}(S) < it > (V) is^{^} (C) 『 mastery of < English > 』 ^{^}(O) « that »^{^} (S) < ⁽¹⁾learners and ⁽²⁾teachers > (V) have ( as < their aim > ) ), (S) < ^(*)the ⁽¹⁾arrangement and ⁽²⁾management ^(*)of < ◎things { ^(*)to ⁽¹⁾(V) teach and ⁽²⁾(V) learn } ― ＼ [ ^(*)(aV) being ] ( actually ) ⁽¹⁾(V) taught but ^(id)not exactly_| ⁽²⁾(V) learnt ／ ― ( at < most Japanese schools > ) > > (V) are (C) 『 ^{^}too^{^} problematic ( ^{^}to^{^} (V) be (C) 『 practical 』』 ). (S) < They > ^{^}(V) present^{^} (O) « learners » ( ^{^}with^{^} < ◎^(w)jigsaw puzzles_| { with < ^{^}too^{^} many ^(w)missing pieces_| ( ^{^}to^{^} (V) imagine (O) « < what > (S) < the whole picture > ^(id)(V) looks like_| » ) > } > ). [ (S) < ^{^}It^{^} > (V) is ] ^(id)(C) 『 No wonder 』 [ ^{^}that^{^} ]_| (S) < few Japanese > (aV) can ( fully ) (V) draw (O) « realistic pictures » ( in < English words > ).
 (S) < ^(*)The ⁽¹⁾{ actual } and ⁽²⁾{ practical } ^(*)^(w)world-picture_| of < English > > (aV) ought to ＼ (V) be (V) treated ／ ( ⁽¹⁾^(id)as a whole_| ), not ( ⁽²⁾as < ◎fragmented pieces { ＼ [ (S) < which > (aV) are ] ^(id)(V) put together_| > ／ ( after < ⁽¹⁾{ long } ⁽²⁾{ patient } ^(*)efforts of < ^(w)garbage collection_| > > ) } ). (S) < ^(*){ Perfect } ⁽¹⁾comprehension and ⁽²⁾mastery ^(*)of < the whole picture > > (aV) will (V) take (O) « some time » ( anyway ), but (S) < that ^(w)time-table_| > (aV) should ＼ (aV) be (V) set ／ ⁽¹⁾( by < ^(*){ learners' } ⁽¹⁾ardency and ⁽²⁾intellectual capacity > ), not ⁽²⁾( by < (S) < ⁽¹⁾teachers and ⁽²⁾schools > ‡^{^}(V) cutting^{^}‡ (O) « a picture » ( ^{^}into < ◎pieces^{^} { ＼ [ (S) < which > (aV) are ] ( conveniently ) (V) arranged ／ for < ⁽¹⁾‡(V) judging‡, not ⁽²⁾‡(V) improving‡, ^(*)(O) « learners' performance » > } > ) > ).
 ( Now ), (S) < you > (aV) must ↑ (aV) have (V) understood ↑ : (S) < (S) < what > (V) is (C) 『 important 』 ( in < English ‡learning‡ > ) > (V) is ^{^}not^{^} ⁽¹⁾(C) 『 ^(id)preparation for_| < ◎lessons { to (V) come } > 』, ^{^}but^{^} ⁽²⁾(C) 『 reviews of < ◎lessons { [ (S) < which > ↑ (aV) have ] ] ( already ) ＼ [ ^(*)(aV) been ] ⁽¹⁾(V) taught ／ ↑ but ^(id)^{^}not^{^} quite_| ＼ ⁽²⁾(V) learnt ／ ( ^{^}yet^{^} ) } > 』. (S) < This book > ^(id)(V) deals with_| < collective knowledge of < English > > ( ^(id)in a bulk_| ). (S) < They > (aV) may (V) fly (C) 『 past 』 ( before < you > ) ( like (S) < ^(w)runaway horses_| > ) ( ^(id)at first_| ): (S) < you > (aV) may (V) feel ＼ ^(id)(V) run over_| ／ ( by < them > ) ( once ), but (S) < ^(id)‡(V) going‡ over_| < them > ( twice ) > (aV) will ^(id)(V) get (O) « you » ( somewhere )_|; ( ^(id)†(V) running† (O) « them » over_| ( ^(id)again and again_| ) ), (S) < you > (aV) will ^(id)(V) come to_| (V) know (O) « ⁽¹⁾where and ⁽²⁾how ^(*)to (V) go ». ( With < { ^{^}each^{^} } { additional } review > ), (S) < you > (aV) will (V) get (C) 『 ^{^}the^{^} nearer ( to < the goal > ) 』. (S) < ^{^}The test of^{^} < an English textbook > > (S) < ^{^}is^{^} > ( ^{^}in the^{^} ‡(V) re-visit^{^}ing^{^}‡ ): (S) < a good one > (V) gives (O) « you » (O) « ◎^(w)the big picture_| { (O) « [ which ] » (S) < you > ^(id)(V) failed to_| (V) see ( at < the first ‡reading‡ > ) } »; (S) < a poor guide > ^(id)^{( １ )}(V) insists on_| < ‡(V) teaching‡ (O) « you » (O) « how to (V) move (O) « your feet » » > but ^{( ２ )}(V) gives (O) « you » (O) « no idea [ about ] ⁽¹⁾< where (S) < you > | (aV) are (V) going | > and ⁽²⁾< how far (S) < you > ↑ (aV) have (V) come ↑ > or ⁽³⁾< (S) < ◎how much > ＼ (aV) is (V) left ／ { to ＼ (aV) be (V) conquered ／ } > ». (S) < This book > ＼ (aV) is (V) written ／ ( ^(id)in { conscious } opposition to_| < such poor guidebooks of < English > ( as < { tedious } ◎^(w)contrary teachers_| { to (V) avoid > } ) > ); (S) < ^{^}whether^{^} (S) < it > (V) is (C) 『 a good guide 』 ^{^}or not^{^} > ＼ (aV) is ^{^}(V) left^{^} ／ ( ^{^}for^{^} (S) < you > ^{^}to^{^} (V) judge )... after < several reviews >, with < the visual assistance of < the { ( incredibly ) meticulous } anatomical interpretation guide of < this book > > > ― Anatomy of reversENGLISH ― 〘 ^(id)that is_| 〙.

= How this book is composed = = 01 =　 = 02 =　 = 03 =

2.{ Japanese } avoidance of < ^(w)personal pronouns_| >

- (S) < Japanese language > (V) has (O) « no ^(w)personal pronouns_| » -
 ( As (C) 『 incredible 』 as (S) < it > (aV) may (V) be ( to < native English speakers > ) ), (S) < Japanese language > (V) has (O) « no "人称代名詞(NINSHOU-DAIMEISHI:^(w)personal pronouns_|)" »: (S) < Japanese people > (V) use (O) « ^{^}so^{^} many ^(w)nouns_| » ( as < substitute ^(w)personal pronouns_| > ) ^{^}that^{^} (S) < ^{^}‡(V) regarding‡^{^} (O) « them » ( all ) (C) 『 ^{^}as^{^} < ^(w)personal pronouns_| > 』 > (aV) would ^(id)(V) make (O) « ^{^}no^{^} { linguistic } sense_| » ( ^{^}^(id)at all_|^{^} ). ( There ) (V) is (S) < no definite rule ( for < ◎^(w)nouns_| { to ＼ (aV) be (V) used ／ ( as < ^(id)substitutes for_| < ^(w)personal pronouns_| > > ) } > ) >: (S) < ( only ) personal choice of < the speaker > > (aV) will (V) decide (O) « ◎{ what } substitute ^(w)personal pronoun_| { to (V) use ( for < ^(*)^(w)any given_| ⁽¹⁾person or ⁽²⁾persons > ) ( in < Japanese language > ) } ».

- [ ( There ) (V) is ] (S) < ^(*)No ⁽¹⁾mystique or ⁽²⁾mistake ^(*)( with < ^(*)English ⁽¹⁾{ personal }/⁽²⁾{ impersonal } ^(*)^(w)pronouns_| > ) > -
 (S) < ^(*)English ⁽¹⁾{ personal } and ⁽²⁾{ impersonal } ^(*)^(w)pronouns_| > (V) are (C) 『 ( definitely ) fixed 』. (S) < It > (aV) can ＼ (aV) be ( further ) ^(id)(V) divided into_| < four forms > ／ ( ^(id)according to_| < its function ( in < the sentence > ) > ), ^(w)namely_|, ⁽¹⁾"主格:SHUKAKU: ^(w)the subjective case_|" (I, we, you, he, she, it, they), ⁽²⁾"所有格:SHOYUUKAKU: ^(w)the possessive case_|" (my, our, your, his, her, its, their), ⁽³⁾"目的格:MOKUTEKIKAKU: ^(w)the objective case_|" (me, us, you, him, her, it, them) and ⁽⁴⁾"所有代名詞:SHOYUU-DAIMEISHI: ^(w)the possessive pronoun_|" (mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, theirs).
 (S) < All ^(*){ English } ⁽¹⁾{ personal }/⁽²⁾{ impersonal } ^(*)^(w)pronouns_| > (aV) can ＼ (aV) be ^(*)( systematically ) ⁽¹⁾(V) defined and ⁽²⁾(V) memorized ／ ( ^(id)in ◎the { following } manner_| ), { ( with < which > ), ( as < a reference > ), (S) < this author > (aV) will (V) enumerate (O) « possible counterparts ( in < Japanese pseudo ^(w)personal pronouns_| > ) ( in < ^(*)the ⁽¹⁾{ subjective }/⁽²⁾{ objective } ^(*)case > ) » } 〘 (( (aV) should (S) < you >( = if (S) < you > (aV) should ) ^(id)(V) want to_| (V) use (O) « them » ( in < ^(*)the ⁽¹⁾^(w)possessive case_|/⁽²⁾^(w)possessive pronoun_| > ) ), ( simply ) (V) add (O) « "の:NO" » ( ^(id)at the end_| )) 〙:
 一人称(ICHI-NINSHOU: ^(w)the first person_|) = ◎the person { [ (S) < who > | (aV) is ] (V) speaking | ( ⁽¹⁾^(id)along with_| or ⁽²⁾^(id)on behalf of_| ^(*)< ◎the person(s) { ^(id)on the side of_| < the speaker > } > ) }:
単数(TANSUU: ^(w)singular_|): I - my - me - mine
Japanese substitutes: 私(WATASHI),私(WATAKUSHI),あたし(ATASHI),僕(BOKU),俺(ORE),俺っち(ORECCHI),あっし(ASSHI),あちき(ACHIKI),手前(TEMAE),自分(JIBUN),当方(TOUHOU),小生(SHOUSEI),儂(WASHI),うち(UCHI),こっち(KOCCHI),こちとら(KOCHITORA),etc,etc.
複数(FUKUSUU: ^(w)plural_|): we - our - us - ours
Japanese substitutes: 私達/ら(WATASHI TACHI/RA),私達/ら/ども(WATAKUSHI TACHI/RA/DOMO),あたしたち/ら(ATASHI TACHI/RA),僕たち/ら(BOKU TACHI/RA),俺たち/ら(ORE TACHI/RA),あっしら(ASSHI RA),我々(WAREWARE),我等(WARERA),手前ども(TEMAE DOMO),自分たち/ら(JIBUN TACHI/RA),当方(TOUHOU),儂ら(WASHI RA),うちら(UCHI RA),こっち(KOCCHI),こちとら(KOCHITORA),etc,etc.
 二人称(NI-NINSHOU: ^(w)the second person_|) = ◎^(*)the ⁽¹⁾person or ⁽²⁾persons { [ < whom > ] (S) < the speaker(s) > | (aV) is ( directly ) ^(id)(V) talking to_| | }
単数/複数(TANSUU/FUKUSUU: ^{^}whether^{^} ^(w)singular_| ^{^}or^{^} ^(w)plural_|): you - your - you - yours
Japanese substitutes: 単数(TANSUU: ^(w)singular_|): あなた(ANATA),あなたさま(ANATA SAMA),あんた(ANTA),君(KIMI),お前(OMAE),貴兄(KIKEI),兄(KEI),貴殿(KIDEN),おたく(OTAKU),汝(NANJI),そっち(SOCCHI),そちらさん(SOCHIRASAN),自分(JIBUN),われ(WARE),うぬ(UNU),おのれ(ONORE),おんどれ(ONDORE),おんどりゃー(ONDORYAA),きさま(KISAMA),こいつ(KOITSU),てめぇ(TEMEE),おめぇ(OMEE),この野郎(KONOYAROU),こんにゃろう(KONNYAROU),なろう(NAROU),こんちくしょう(KONCHIKUSHOU),こなくそ(KONAKUSO),etc,etc.
複数(FUKUSUU: ^(w)plural_|): あなたがた/たち/ら(ANATA GATA/TACHI/RA),あんたがた/たち/ら(ANTA GATA/TACHI/RA),君たち/ら(KIMI TACHI/RA),お前たち/ら(OMAE TACHI/RA),貴兄ら(KIKEI RA),兄ら(KEI RA),おたくたち/ら(OTAKU TACHI/RA),汝等(NANJI RA),そっち(SOCCHI),そちらさん(SOCHIRASAN),自分ら(JIBUN RA),われ(WARE),うぬら(UNU RA),おのれら(ONORE RA),おんどれ(ONDORE),おんどりゃー(ONDORYAA),きさまら(KISAMA RA),こいつら(KOITSU RA),てめぇら(TEMEE RA),おめぇら(OMEE RA),この野郎ども(KONOYAROU DOMO),こんにゃろうども(KONNYAROU DOMO),こんちくしょうども(KONCHIKUSHOU DOMO),こなくそ(KONAKUSO),etc,etc.
 三人称(SAN-NINSHOU: ^(w)the third person_|) = ◎the person(s) or thing(s) { < [ that ] > ^(*)(S) < the speaker(s) > ⁽¹⁾ | (aV) is ( indirectly ) ^(id)(V) referring to_| | , not ⁽²⁾( directly ) ^(id)(V) talking to_| }
男性単数(DANSEI TANSUU: ^(w)masculine_| ^(w)singular_|): he - his - him - his
Japanese substitutes: 彼(KARE),あの男(ANO OTOKO),あの人(ANO HITO),あの方(ANO KATA),あのお方(ANO OKATA),氏(SHI),彼氏(KARESHI),あの者(ANO MONO),その者(SONO MONO),あの御仁(ANO GOJIN),あいつ(AITSU),あやつ(AYATSU),やつ(YATSU),きゃつ(KYATSU),そやつ(SOYATSU),やっこさん(YAKKO SAN),あんちくしょう(ANCHIKUSHOU),あんにゃろう(ANNYAROU),あちらさん(ACHIRA SAN),あの子(ANO KO),あの野郎(ANO YAROU),etc,etc.
女性単数(JOSEI TANSUU: ^(w)feminine_| ^(w)singular_|): she - her - her - hers
Japanese substitutes: 彼女(KANOJO),あの女(ANO ONNA),あの人(ANO HITO),あの方(ANO KATA),あのお方(ANO OKATA),あの者(ANO MONO),その者(SONO MONO),あの御仁(ANO GOJIN),あいつ(AITSU),あやつ(AYATSU),やつ(YATSU),きゃつ(KYATSU),そやつ(SOYATSU),やっこさん(YAKKO SAN),あんちくしょう(ANCHIKUSHOU),あんにゃろう(ANNYAROU),あちら(ACHIRA),あちらさん(ACHIRA SAN),あの娘(ANO KO),あのアマ(ANO AMA),あのスケ(ANO SUKE),etc,etc.
非人称単数(HININSHOU TANSUU: ^(w)impersonal_| ^(w)singular_|): it - its - it - its
Japanese substitutes: あれ(ARE),それ(SORE),あいつ(AITSU),そいつ(SOITSU),その物(SONO MONO),その何か(SONO NANIKA),etc,etc.
男性・女性・中性または非人称複数(DANSEI・JOSEI・CHUUSEI or HININSHOU FUKUSUU: ^(w)plural_| ^{^}whether^{^} ^(w)masculine_|, ^(w)feminine_|, ^(w)neuter_| ^{^}or^{^} ^(w)impersonal_|): they - their - them - theirs
Japanese substitutes: 彼ら(KARE RA),それら(SORERA),そういう人たち(SOUIU HITO TACHI),そういう物たち(SOUIU MONO TACHI),あの人たち(ANO HITO TACHI),あの方たち(ANO KATA TACHI),あの男ども(ANO OTOKO DOMO),彼たち(KARE TACHI),あの女ども(ANO ONNNA DOMO),彼女ら/たち/ども(KANOJO TACHI/DOMO),あの連中(ANO RENCHUU),ああした連中(AASHITA RENCHUU),ああいう者ども(AAIU MONO DOMO),あいつら(AITSURA),あやつら(AYATSURA),やつら(YATSURA),きゃつら(KYATSURA),そいつら(SOITSURA),やっこさんたち(YAKKOSAN TACHI),あんちくしょうども(ANCHIKUSHOU DOMO),あちら(ACHIRA),あちらさん(ACHIRA SAN),あちらさんがた(ACHIRA SAN GATA),あんにゃろうども(ANNYAROU DOMO), etc,etc.

- ◎The essential reason { why (S) < the Japanese > (V) avoid (O) « ‡(V) calling‡ (O) « someone » ( by < ^(*){ definite } ⁽¹⁾names or ⁽²⁾^(w)pronouns_| > ) » } -
 ( To < ◎English speakers { [ (S) < who > (V) are ] (C) 『 ^(id)at a loss_| 』 [ about ] < how to (V) make (O) « conversation » (C) 『 possible 』 ( with < so many possible substitutes > ) ( without < definite ^(w)personal pronouns_| > ) > } > ), ^(id)(V) suffice (O) « ^{^}it^{^} » ^{^}to^{^} (V) say_| (O) « [ that ]^(*)(S) < most Japanese sentences > ^{( １ )}(V) are (C) 『 complete ( ^(*)without < ⁽¹⁾SHUGO(^(w)subjects_|: I, we, you, he, she, it, they) or ⁽²⁾MOKUTEKIGO(^(w)objects_|: me, us, you, him, her, it, them) > ) 』 and ^{( ２ )}^(id)^{^}(V) consist^{^} ( mainly ) ^(*)of_| ⁽¹⁾< DOUSHI(^(w)verbs_|) > and ⁽²⁾< its accompaniment > ». ( ( Quite ) incredibly ( for < English natives > ) ), (S) < "(S)I (V)love (O)you" > (V) is ( ( almost ) always ) (C) 『 "(V)好きです(SUKI DESU)" 』 ( ^(id)instead of_| < ＼ (aV) being (V) expressed ／ ( in < ^{^}such^{^} ( perfectly ) formal Japanese ^{^}as^{^} < "(S)私は(WATASHI WA) (O)あなたが(ANATA GA) (V)好きです(SUKI DESU)" > > ) > ).
 While (S) < ⁽¹⁾{ subjective } or ⁽²⁾{ objective } ^(*)ellipsis > (V) is (C) 『 ( quite ) ◎rare { to (V) find } 』 ( in < English sentences > ), / (S) < their formal existence > (V) is (C) 『 rarer ( still ) 』 ( in < Japanese > ). ( ^(id)In essence_| ), (S) < Japanese people > ( positively ) ^(id)(V) hate ^(*)to_| ⁽¹⁾(V) call or ⁽²⁾ ＼ (aV) be (V) called by ／ ^(*)(O) « < definite names > ». [ (aV) Do (S) < you > (V) think (O) « [ [ that ] ] (S) < it > ] (V) Sounds (C) 『 crazy 』 »? ^(w)Maybe( = (S) < It > (aV) may (V) be (C) 『 so 』 )_|, ( to < Indo-European speakers > ); but (S) < the avoidance of < direct name-‡calling‡ > > (V) is (C) 『 ◎a { time-honored } custom of < Japanese language > { (S) < which > ^(id)(V) has (O) « its root » ( in_| < ◎their spiritual belief { [ (S) < which > ＼ (aV) is ] ] (V) called ／ (C) 『 "言霊(KOTODAMA: ◎spirit { [ (S) < which > (V) is ] (C) 『 ^(id)inherent 』 in_| < ^(w)each and every_| word > })" 』 } > ) } 』.
 (S) < The history of < Japanese ^(id)belief in_| < ◎KOTODAMA > > > (V) is ( presumably ) (C) 『 as old as (S) < the Japanese language ( itself ) > 』, (S) < which > (V) tells (O) « us » 〘 (( even ) today, ^(id)more or less_|) 〙 (O) « that (S) < we > (aV) can (V) capture (O) « the spirit of < ^(w)any given_| entity > » ( by ( simply ) ‡(V) uttering‡ (O) « ◎the word { †(V) signifying†( = (S) < which > (V) signifies ) (O) « the entity » } » ) ». (S) < A name of < ⁽¹⁾someone or ⁽²⁾something > > ＼ (aV) was (V) believed ／ to ^(id)(V) have (O) « { some magical } power ( over_|_| < ◎the ⁽¹⁾person or ⁽²⁾thing { < [ that ] > (S) < the name > ^(id)(V) stood for_| } > ) ». ( ^(id)In fact_| ), ( in < ancient Japan > 〘 (^(id)up until_| < the early years of < ^(w)the Heian Era_| > >) 〙 ) ◎the terms ⁽¹⁾"事(KOTO: thing)" and ⁽²⁾"言(KOTO: word)" ＼ (aV) were ^{^}so^{^} ( closely ) (V) associated ( together ) ／ ^{^}that^{^} (S) < they > ＼ (aV) were (V) felt ／ to (V) be (C) 『 ( virtually ) the same thing 』. (S) < That > (V) is (C) 『 [ the reason ] why (S) < ^{^}it^{^} > ＼ (aV) was (V) thought ／ (C) 『 [ to (V) be ] (C) 『 blasphemous 』』 ^{^}to^{^} (V) call (O) « persons ( in < high positions > ) » ( by < ( directly ) ^(id)‡(V) referring‡ to_| < their names > > ) 』. ( ( Even ) today ), (S) < ‡(V) calling‡ (O) « someone » ( by < their real name > ) > (V) is (C) 『 ◎a privilege { [ (S) < which > ＼ (aV) is ] ] ( only ) (V) allowed ／ ( to < ◎someone (C) 『 { [ (S) < who > (V) is ] ( ( so ) intimately ) (C) 『 near 』 } 』 > ) } 』. ( When (S) < any other boys > (V) call (O) « a girl » ( by < ⁽¹⁾{ affectionate } but ⁽²⁾{ general } ^(*)nickname "花子ちゃん(HANAKO CHAN)" > ) ), (S) < ( only ) her ^(w)true love_| > (aV) can ( intimately ) (V) call (O) « her » (C) 『 ◎"花子(HANAKO)" 』, (S) < which >, 〘 in < English > 〙, (aV) can ＼ (aV) be ( bravely ) ^(id)(V) translated into_| < "HANAKO, my dear" > ／ . (S) < Direct name-‡calling‡ ( in < Japan > ) >, ( while [ (S) < it > (V) is ] ^(id)not strictly_| (C) 『 a taboo 』 ( today ) ), (aV) could ( still ) (V) invoke (O) « ◎feelings { [ (S) < which > (V) are ] (C) 『 ^(id)beyond < the wildest imagination of_| < Western folks > > 』 } ».
 ( When (S) < name-‡calling‡ > ＼ (aV) was 〘 thus 〙 ( consciously ) (V) avoided ／ ), (S) < ^{^}it^{^} > (V) was (C) 『 ( only ) natural 』 ^{^}that^{^} (S) < ^(w)personal pronouns_| > ^(id)(V) had (O) « no chance of_|_| < development > » ( in < the history of < Japanese language > > ). ( Moreover ), ( by < ‡(V) giving‡ (O) « someone » (O) « any definite pseudo ^(w)personal pronoun_| » > ), (S) < Japanese people > (aV) will (V) make (O) « their mental stance » (C) 『 clear 』 ( toward < that person > ): (S) < ^{^}whether^{^} ^(*)(S) < they > ^{( １ )}(V) respect(eg.あなたさま:ANATA SAMA), ^{( ２* )}(V) feel ⁽¹⁾(C) 『 ^(id)affectionate to_| 』(eg.君:KIMI) or ⁽²⁾(C) 『 ^(id)distant from_| 』(eg.おたく:OTAKU), ^{^}or^{^} ( even ) ( positively ) ^{( ３ )}(V) hate(eg.てめぇ:TEMEE) ^(*)(O) « < that person > » >, ＼ (aV) is (V) made ／ (C) 『 clear 』 ( ^(*)by < the ⁽¹⁾choice and ⁽²⁾use ^(*)of < a particular denomination > > ). ( ^(id)Rather than_| < ‡(V) putting‡ (O) « themselves » ( in < a ( possibly ) awkward position > ) ( by < improper name-‡calling‡ > ) > ), (S) < Japanese people > ( instinctively ) (V) avoid (O) « ‡(V) using‡ (O) « any ^(w)personal pronouns_| » », / ^(id)with ◎the { logical } consequence { that_|_| (S) < Japanese sentences > ( ( so ) frequently ) (V) omit (O) « ⁽¹⁾^(w)subjects_| or ⁽²⁾^(w)objects_| », ^(id)only to_| ＼ (aV) be (V) supplemented ／ ( by < the reader's imagination > ( ^(id)according to_| < the context > ) ) }.
 ( For < Japanese learners of < English > > ), ( therefore ), (S) < ◎the first thing { to (V) remember } > (V) is (C) 『 never to (V) omit (O) « ◎⁽¹⁾^(w)subjects_| or ⁽²⁾^(w)objects_| » ( in < English > ) 』, { (S) < which >, 〘 in < most cases > 〙, (V) take (O) « the form of < ^(w)personal pronouns_| > (I, we, you, he, she, it, they / me, us, you, him, her, it, them) » }. ^(w)(S) < The good news > (V) is (C) 『 [ that ] _|_|, (S) < they > ^(*)(V) are ⁽¹⁾(C) 『 ( definitely ) fixed 』 ( in < English > ) and (C) 『 ⁽²⁾^{^}so^{^} ◎easy { to (V) understand } 』 ^{^}that^{^} (S) < Japanese people > ^(id)(aV) will (V) find (O) « { little } difficulty » [ in ]_| ‡(V) mastering‡ (O) « them », / and ( once (S) < they > ^(id)(V) get (C) 『 acquainted with_| < their use > 』 ), (S) < they > (aV) can (V) feel (O) « the ^{^}freedom^{^} of < English > ^{^}from^{^} < ◎^{^}those^{^} crazy variations of < ⁽¹⁾nuances and ⁽²⁾restrictions > { ^{^}(S) < which >^{^} (V) make (O) « Japanese conversation » (C) 『 ^(*)^{^}too^{^} ⁽¹⁾cramped and ⁽²⁾( dishonestly ) unnatural ( ^{^}to^{^} (V) reach (O) « people of < different social status > » ) 』 } > » 』.
 ^(w)(S) < The bad news > (V) is (C) 『 [ that ] _|_|, (S) < ◎people { [ (S) < who > ＼ (aV) are ] ] ( once ) ^(id)(V) liberated from_| ／ < such crazy chains > } > (aV) will never ^(id)(V) want to_| ^(id)(V) get back to_| < their old { suffocating } ◎restraints of < the Japanese > >, { linguistic ^(id)or otherwise_| } 』. (S) < ◎^{^}Those^{^} Japanese { ^{^}(S) < who >^{^} ↑ (aV) have ^(id)(V) acquainted (O) « themselves » with_| ↑ < English freedom > } > (aV) could 〘 ^(id)no longer_| 〙 ^(id)(V) put up with_| < ( suffocatingly ) absurd customs ( in < their native country > ) >. (S) < A possible solution > (V) is (C) 『 [ that ] (S) < all Japanese >, 〘 beyond < any social status > 〙, (aV) should ^(id)be able to_| (V) communicate ( freely ) ( in < English > ) 』, ^{^}not^{^} ( ^(id)in order to_| (V) desert (O) « Japanese » ) ^{^}but^{^} ( ^(id)so that_| (S) < they > (aV) can (V) understand (O) « ^(id)< what > (S) < ^{^}it^{^} > (V) is (C) 『 like 』 ^{^}to^{^}_| (V) be (C) 『 Japanese 』 » ), and( = and then ) (S) < they > (aV) will ^(id)(V) try 〘 consciously 〙 to_| (V) make (O) « themselves » (C) 『 ◎better, ( linguistically ^(id)or otherwise_| ) 』. [ (aV) Do (S) < you > (V) feel (O) « [ that ] (S) < it > ] (V) Sounds (C) 『 impossible 』 »? ^(w)Maybe( = (S) < It > (aV) may (V) be (C) 『 so 』 )_|... but (S) < it > (aV) may ^(id)(V) turn out to_| (V) be (C) 『 nothing 』 ( [ when (S) < it > ＼ (aV) is ] ] ^(id)(V) compared to_| ／ < ◎the ^{^}difficulty^{^} { (O) « [ which ] » (S) < foreign people > ^{^}(V) find^{^} ( ^{^}in^{^} < ‡(V) deciding‡ (O) « ◎{ what } pseudo ^(w)personal pronoun_| { to (V) adopt ( in < their Japanese conversation > ) ) } » > } > ).

- ^{^}(V) Get^{^} (C) 『＼ ^{^}(V) acquainted^{^} ^{^}with^{^} ／ < English > 』 ( through < ^(w)pronoun_| pronouncement > ) -
 ( If (S) < you > (V) are (C) 『 a complete beginner ( in < the study of < English > > ) 』 ), (S) < ^{^}it^{^} > (V) is (C) 『 a ( very ) good practice 』 ^(*)^{^}to^{^} ⁽¹⁾^{^}(V) change^{^} (O) « ◎anything { (O) « [ that ] » (S) < you > (V) see } » ^{^}into^{^} < a ^(w)pronoun_|(we, you, they, he, she, it... 〘 (S) < "I" > (aV) will ^{^}(V) play^{^} (O) « no ^{^}role^{^} » ( ^{^}in^{^} < this practice > ) 〙) > and ⁽²⁾( instantly ) (V) pronounce (O) « it ». (S) < It > (V) seems (C) 『 easy ( enough ) 』, but (S) < it > (V) takes (O) « some ＼ ^(id)‡(V) getting‡ (C) 『 used to_| 』／ » ( before (S) < you > (V) are ( perfectly ) (C) 『 ^(id)familiar with_| < the notion of < English ^(w)pronouns_| > > 』 ). ^(id)(aV) Shall (S) < we >_| (V) take (O) « some examples »?
 (S) < ^(id)One of_| < ◎the commonest ^{^}mistakes^{^} { (O) « [ that ] » (S) < beginners > ^{^}(V) make^{^} } > > (V) is (C) 『 "personal association of < ^(w)impersonal pronouns_| >" 』: to ^{^}(V) confuse^{^} (O) « ^(w)an impersonal pronoun_|(it, they, its, their, them) » ^{^}with^{^} < ◎the person { [ < whom > ] (S) < it > ＼ ^(id)(aV) is (V) associated with_| ／ } >. ( ^(id)For example_| ), ( [ in ◎a case ] where (S) < "(S) < Your lips > (V) look (C) 『 ^{^}so^{^} charming 』. [ ^{^}that^{^} ] (S) ^(id)(V) feel like_| ‡(V) kissing‡ (O) « <them> »." > (V) is (C) 『 the correct English 』 ), (S) < beginners > (V) ( often ) say (O) « "...(S) ^(id)(V) feel like_| ‡(V) kissing‡ (O) « <you> »" » ( ( simply ) because (S) < "your lips" > ^(id)(V) belong to_| < "you" > ). ( Likewise ), (S) < "(S) < My nose > | (aV) is (V) running | . (S) < <It> > ( simply ) (aV) wouldn't (V) stop" > (aV) will ＼ (aV) be ^(id)(V) mistaken for_| ／ < "... (S) < > ( simply ) (aV) wouldn't (V) stop" > ( by < novice learners of < English > > ). (S) < ⁽¹⁾"Your lips" and ⁽²⁾"My nose" > ^(*)(V) are ⁽¹⁾(C) 『 objects of < perception > 』, not ⁽²⁾(C) 『 ^(id)identical with_| < ◎the person { [ < whom > ] (S) < they > ^(id)(V) belong to_| } > 』.
 (S) < This objectification process > (V) is (C) 『 ( initially ) difficult 』 ( for < ◎Japanese people >, (S) < who >( = because (S) < they > ) ( rarely ) ^{^}(V) make^{^} (O) « mental ^{^}distinction^{^} ( ^{^}between^{^} < themselves > ^{^}and^{^} < ⁽¹⁾things or ⁽²⁾folks ( ^(*)around < them > ) > ) » ). [ (aV) Do ] (S) < You > (V) doubt (O) « me »?... OK, ( then ), (O) « what » (aV) do (S) < you > (V) feel ( about < ^{^}this^{^} English >^{^}:^{^} "(S) < Our company > (V) is (C) 『 ^(id)in { great } danger_| 』 ( now ). (S) < <It> > ^(id)has to_| (V) regenerate (O) « <itself> »." )... (aV) didn't ^(*)(S) < you > ⁽¹⁾(V) feel (O) « it » (C) 『 strange 』 and ⁽²⁾^(id)want to_| (V) say 〘 instead 〙 (O) « "...(S) < <We> > ^(id)have to_| (V) regenerate (O) « <ourselves> »" »? (S) < ^{^}Identification^{^} of < oneself > ^{^}with^{^} < ⁽¹⁾things or ⁽²⁾folks ( ^(*)around < them > ) > > (V) is (C) 『 ^{^}so^{^} deep-rooted ( in < Japanese consciousness > ) 』 ^{^}that^{^} (S) < "^(w)pronoun_| pronouncement" > (V) is (C) 『 important 』 ( for < beginners > ).
 (S) < To ^(id)be able to_| ^(w)(V) paraphrase_| (O) « anything » ( in < the correct form of < ⁽¹⁾{ personal }/⁽²⁾{ impersonal } ^(*)^(w)pronoun_|(I, we, you, they, he, she, it) > > ) > (V) is (C) 『 ^(w)the cornerstone of_| < your ^(w)command of_| < English > > 』. (aV) Do 〘 consciously 〙 (V) practice (O) « ^(w)pronoun_| pronouncement » ( while (S) < you > (V) are (C) 『 ( still ) ^(id)awkward with_| < English language > 』 ). (S) < It > (aV) won't (V) take (O) « much effort », (S) < it > (aV) won't (V) take (O) « too much time », but (S) < it > (aV) will ( certainly ) ^(id)(V) take (O) « you » ( somewhere )_|, ( when (S) < you > (V) are (C) 『 ( completely ) sure [ that ] (S) < you > (aV) can (V) handle (O) « English ^(w)pronouns_| » ( ⁽¹⁾instantly and ⁽²⁾instinctively ) 』 ).

= How this book is composed = = 01 =　 = 02 =　 = 03 =

3.^(id)Lack of_| < future > ( in < Japanese ^(w)tense_| > )

(S) < "時制(JISEI: ^(w)tense_|)" > (V) is (C) 『 ◎another dimension { ( in < which > ) (S) < Japanese language > (V) is (C) 『 ( impossibly ) ^(id)different from_| < English > 』 } 』. (S) < English consciousness > ＼ (aV) is ( clearly ) ^{^}(V) divided^{^} ／〘 by < temporal distinctions > 〙 ^{^}into^{^} < three ^(w)tenses_| >, ^(w)namely_|, ◎⁽¹⁾"現在(GENZAI: the present)", ⁽²⁾"過去(KAKO: the past)" and ⁽³⁾"未来(MIRAI: the future)", { (S) < each of < which > > [ being ] with < possible accompaniment of < "完了形(KANRYOU-KEI: ^(w)the perfect tense_|)" > >( = and (S) < each of < them > > (aV) can ＼ ^(id)(aV) be (V) accompanied by_| ／ ^(w)the perfect tense_| ) }, / while (S) < contemporary Japanese language > ^(id)(V) is ( essentially ) (C) 『 lacking in_| < ^(*)the ⁽¹⁾{ future } and ⁽²⁾{ perfect } ^(*)^(w)tenses_| > 』.

- (S) < ^(*)The ⁽¹⁾present and ⁽²⁾future > (V) have (O) « no boundary » ( in < Japanese > ) -
 ^(id)(aV) Let (O) « us »_| (C) 『 (V) take (O) « ◎English examples » 』 ( to (V) see (O) « the temporal difference ( in < their language > ) », { ( below < which > ) (aV) will (V) come (S) < their Japanese equivalents > ) }:
 過去形(KAKO-KEI: ^(w)the past tense_|)
(S) (V) worked ( yesterday ).
私は昨日働いた(WATASHI WA KINOU HATARAITA)
現在形(GENZAI-KEI: ^(w)the present tense_|)
(S) (V) work ( every day ).
私は毎日働く(WATASHI WA MAINICHI HATARAKU)
未来形(MIRAI-KEI: ^(w)the future tense_|)
(S) (aV) will (V) work ( tomorrow ), ( too ).
私は明日も働く(WATASHI WA ASU MO HATARAKU)
 ( For < each of < the { above-mentioned } forms of < ^(*)the ⁽¹⁾past, ⁽²⁾present and ⁽³⁾future > > > ), ( there ) (aV) can (V) be (S) < "完了形(KANRYOU-KEI: ^(w)the perfect tense_|)" > ( ^(id)in the form of_| < "have+過去分詞(KAKO-BUNSHI: ^(w)the past participle_|)" > ) ( with (S) < "have" > ＼ [ †(aV) being† ] ^(id)(V) changed into_| ／ < "had/have/has/will have" > ( ^(id)in accordance ^(*)with_| ⁽¹⁾< the ^(w)tense_| > and ⁽²⁾< the ^(w)subject_| > ) ):
過去完了形(KAKO-KANRYOU-KEI: the past perfect tense)
(S) ↑ (aV) had (V) worked ↑ ( eight hours ) ( by < then > ).
その時点までに私は既に８時間働いていた(SONO JITEN MADENI WATASHI WA SUDENI HACHI JIKAN HATARAITE ITA)
現在完了形(GENZAI-KANRYOU-KEI: the present perfect tense)
(S) ↑ (aV) have (V) worked ↑ ( three hours ).
私は既に３時間働いた(WATASHI WA SUDENI SAN JIKAN HATARAITA)
未来完了形(MIRAI-KANRYOU-KEI: the future perfect tense)
(S) ↑ (aV) will (aV) have (V) worked ↑ ( eight hours ) ( at < 5 P.M > ).
午後５時の時点で私は８時間働いたことになる(GOGO GOJI NO JITEN DE WATASHI WA HACHI JIKAN HATARAITA KOTO NI NARU)
 ( Now ), (S) < ◎^(*)the ⁽¹⁾{ first } and ⁽²⁾{ easiest } thing { for (S) < Japanese learners > to (V) consider } > (V) is (C) 『 the English ^{^}distinction between^{^} < "現在形(GENZAI-KEI: ^(w)the present form_|)" > ^{^}and^{^} < "未来形(MIRAI-KEI: ^(w)the future form_|)" > 』: (S) < simple addition of < the ^(w)auxiliary verb_| "will" > ( before < ^(w)any given_| ^(w)verb_| > ) (in < its "原形:GENKEI=^(w)root form_|" >) > (aV) will (V) ^{^}change^{^} (O) « ⁽¹⁾the { present } » ^{^}into^{^} < ⁽²⁾the { future } ^(*)^(w)tense_| >. While ( in < Japanese > ), ( there ) (V) is (S) < not ( even ) a ^{^}distinction between^{^} < the present > ^{^}and^{^} < the future > >, ( (S) < as > (aV) can ＼ (aV) be (V) seen ／ ( in < the translations { above } > ) ). (S) < The future ( in < Japanese language > ) > ＼ (aV) is ^{^}not^{^} (V) shown ／ ( ⁽¹⁾by < the "語尾変化(GOBI-HENKA: ^(w)inflection_|)" of < ^(w)verbs_| > > ) ^{^}but^{^} ( ⁽²⁾by < the presence of < "時の副詞(TOKI-NO-FUKUSHI: temporal ^(w)adverbs_|)" > > ). ( If (S) < "明日(ASU:tomorrow)" > ＼ (aV) is (V) found ／ ( within < the sentence > ) ), (S) < the ^(w)tense_| > (aV) will ＼ (aV) be ( automatically ) ^{^}(V) interpreted^{^} ／ ^{^}as^{^} < ^(id)‡(V) belonging‡ to_| < "the future" > >, / ^(id)so that_| (S) < "私は明日働く(WATASHI WA ASU HATARAKU)" > ^(id)does not have to_| ＼ (aV) be ( meticulously ) (V) written ／ as < "私は明日働くだろう(WATASHI WA ASU HATARAKU DAROU)" >.

- { Volitional } "will" and { expecting } "will" -
 ( [ If (S) < it > ＼ (aV) is ] ] ( Precisely ) (V) interpreted ／ ), (S) < the English ^(w)auxiliary verb_| "will" > (aV) can ＼ (aV) be ^(id)(V) translated into_| ／ < two ^(id)types of_| < Japanese expressions > >: ⁽¹⁾volitional "つもりだ(TSUMORI DA)" and ⁽²⁾expecting(non-volitional) "だろう(DAROU)".
 ( When (S) < the "will" > ＼ ^(id)(aV) is (V) meant as_| ／ < volitional declaration > ), (S) < its Japanese equivalent > (aV) should ^{^}either^{^} (V) be ⁽¹⁾(C) 『 "つもりだ(TSUMORI DA)" 』 ^{^}or^{^} ⁽²⁾(C) 『 "" 』 ― nothing { added }. ( ^(id)In fact_| ), (S) < "つもり(TSUMORI)" ( in < Japanese > ) > ^(id)(V) has (O) « a way of_|_| < ^(id)‡(V) sounding‡ ( more ) like_| < a pretext > than < a declaration of < firm will > > > », / ^(id)so that_|, ( in < normal contexts > ), (S) < ( volitionally ) imagined future ( in < Japanese > ) > ＼ ^(id)(aV) is ( rarely ) (V) accompanied by_| ／ < "つもりだ(TSUMORI DA)" >. ( If (S) < you > (V) find (O) « a Japanese sentence "私は明日働くつもりだ(WATASHI WA ASU HATARAKU TSUMORI DA)" » ), (S) < you > (aV) may 〘 reasonably 〙 (V) expect (O) « [ that ] (S) < ◎the person { [ (S) < who > | (aV) is ] ] (V) speaking | ( like < that > ) } > | (aV) WILL NOT 〘 ^(id)in fact_| 〙 (aV) BE (V) WORKING | ( tomorrow ) ».
 ( When ^(*)(S) < English "will" > ⁽¹⁾(V) has (O) « ^{^}no^{^} volition » ( in < it > ) ^{^}but^{^} ⁽²⁾ ＼ ^(id)(aV) is (V) meant as_| ／ < an objective expectation of < future events > > ), (S) < the Japanese equivalent > (V) is (C) 『 "だろう(DAROU)" 』, ( as < ^(id)in the case of_| < "(S) < It > (aV) will (V) rain ( tomorrow )" ＼ [ (aV) being ] ^{^}(V) translated^{^} ／ ^{^}into^{^} < "明日は雨が降るだろう(ASU WA AME GA FURU DAROU)" > > > ).
 ( ^(id)In summary_| ), (S) < ^(w)the future tense_| ( in < English language > ) >, 〘 while ＼ [ (aV) being ] (V) expressed ／ by < the addition of < the same ^(w)auxiliary verb_| "will" ( before < ^(w)the root form_| of < a ^(w)verb_| > > ) > > 〙, ＼ (aV) is ^{^}(V) divided^{^} ／ ^{^}^(*)into^{^} ⁽¹⁾< "volitional future"="つもりだ(TSUMORI DA)" > and ⁽²⁾< "( simply ) expected(non-volitional) future"="だろう(DAROU)" >. ( In < actual Japanese > ), (S) < volitional future > (V) is (C) 『 no ^(id)different from_| < ^(w)the present tense_| > 』, ＼ [ (aV) being ] ( usually ) (V) used ／ ( without < "つもりだ(TSUMORI DA)" > ), / and (S) < non-volitional future > (aV) can ( often ) ＼ (aV) be (V) used ／ ( without < "だろう(DAROU)" > ) ( ^(id)in case_| ( there ) (V) is (S) < ◎some temporal ^(w)adverb_| { to (V) show (O) « [ that ] (S) < the sentence > (V) develops ( ^(id)in the future_| ) » } >, †(V) making†( = (S) < which > (V) makes ) (O) « it » ( virtually ) (C) 『 ^(id)identical with_| < ^(w)the present tense_| > 』, ( too ) ).

- (S) < English ^(w)past tense_| > (V) has (O) « ^{^}so^{^} many variations » ^{^}that^{^} (S) < conscious ‡memorizing‡ process > ＼ (aV) is (V) required ／ -
 ( In < Japanese language > ), (S) < ^(w)the past tense_| > (aV) can ( quite simply ) ＼ (aV) be (V) expressed ／ ( by < ‡(V) modifying‡ (O) « the DOUSHI(^(w)verb_|) » ( with < ^{^}such^{^} inflections ^{^}as^{^} < "た(TA)", "だ(DA)" or "した(SHITA)" > > ) > ):
eg."(S) < He > (V) says ( so ):彼はそう言う(KAREWA SOU IU) into < (S) < He > (V) said ( so ):彼はそう言った(KARE WA SOU ITTA)" >,
"(S) < She > (V) dies:彼女は死ぬ(KANOJO WA SHINU) into < (S) < She > (V) died:彼女は死んだ(KANOJO WA SHINDA)" >
or "(S) < We > (V) evacuate:我々は避難する(WAREWARE WA HINAN SURU) into < (S) < We > (V) evacuated:我々は避難した(WAREWARE WA HINAN SHITA)" >.
But ( in < English > ), ( while (S) < most ^(w)verbs_| > (aV) can (V) signify (O) « ^(w)the past tense_| » ( by < the simple addition of < ⁽¹⁾"d" or ⁽²⁾"ed" > > ( ^(id)at the end of_| < its ^(w)root form_| (規則変化:KISOKU-HENKA: ^(w)regular conjugation_|) > ) ) ), (S) < some ^(w)verbs_| > (aV) must (V) take (O) « ( completely ) different forms (不規則変化:FUKISOKU-HENKA: ^(w)irregular conjugation_|) » ( to ＼ (aV) be ^(*)(V) used ／ ⁽¹⁾in < ^(w)the past tense_| > 〘 (^(w)namely_|, ^(w)the past form_|) 〙, ⁽²⁾in < ^(w)the perfect tense_| > or ⁽³⁾in < ^(w)the passive voice_| > 〘 (^(w)viz_| ^(w)the past participle_|) 〙 ). ( Although (S) < their variations > (aV) must ( respectively ) ＼ (aV) be (V) memorized ／ ), (S) < they > (aV) can ( loosely ) ＼ (aV) be ^(id)(V) grouped into_| ／ < the following four patterns >:
(1)A - B - B: (S) < ^(w)the past form_| and ^(w)the past participle_| > (V) take (O) « the same form »
eg. catch - caught - caught, hear - heard - heard, sit - sat - sat
(2)A - B - C: (S) < ^(w)the past form_| and ^(w)the past participle_| > (V) take (O) « different forms »
eg. break - broke - broken, fall - fell - fallen, lie - lay - lain
(3)A - B - A: (S) < ^(w)the present_| and ^(w)the past participle_| > (V) take (O) « the same form »
eg. become - became - become, come - came - come, run - ran - run
(4)A - A - A: (S) < ^(w)the present_|, ^(w)the past_| and ^(w)the past participle_| > ( all ) (V) take (O) « the same form »
eg. cut - cut - cut, let - let - let, read - read - read
 (S) < The more detailed list of < these ^(w)irregular conjugations_| > > (aV) can ＼ (aV) be (V) found ／ ( in < ^(*){ most } ⁽¹⁾^(w)reference books_| or ⁽²⁾dictionaries > ). ( ^(id)Now that_| (S) < you > ↑ (aV) have (V) known ↑ (O) « why (S) < ^{^}it^{^} > (V) is (C) 『 necessary 』 ^{^}to^{^} ^(id)(V) learn (O) « them » ( by heart )_| » ), ( to (V) make (C) 『 clear 』 (O) « the temporal distinctions » ), (V) (aV) do (V) memorize (O) « them » ( all ) ( by < ( rhythmically ) ‡(V) singing‡ (O) « "ring - rang - rung, sing - sang - sung, sink - sank - sunk[en], etc, etc..." » > )

- (S) < Chinese language > (aV) does not ( even ) (V) have (O) « ^(w)the past form_| » -
 ( Although (S) < Japanese language > (V) is (C) 『 ( structurally ) ^(id)different from_| < Chinese language > 』 ), (S) < it > (V) borrows 〘 from Chinese 〙 (O) « its ^(w)ideographic_| ‡writing‡ system: 漢字(KANJI=^(w)Chinese characters_|) ». But, ( unlike < Chinese > ), (S) < Japanese language > ＼ ^(id)(aV) is not (V) composed ( solely ) of_| ／ < KANJI >: (S) < it > ( also ) (V) has (O) « かな(仮名:KANA), ◎^(w)phonographic_| ‡writing‡ system { [ (S) < which > ＼ (aV) was ] ] ( originally ) (V) invented ／ ( from < ^(w)Chinese characters_| > ) ( in < ancient Japan > ) } ». ^{^}(S) < It > (V) is^{^} (C) 『 this latter 』, KANA, ^{^}(S) < which >^{^} (V) makes (O) « ^{^}it^{^} » (C) 『 possible 』 ^{^}for^{^} (S) < Japanese > ^{^}to^{^} (V) act ( like < English > ) ( in < its ^(w)inflection_| > ) ( to ^{^}(V) differentiate^{^} (O) « ⁽¹⁾the { present } ^(*)tense » ^{^}from^{^} < ⁽²⁾the { past } > ), ( as [ (S) < it > ＼ (aV) is ] ] (V) seen ／ ( in < the examples [ of ] ⁽¹⁾"私は働く(WATASHI WA HATARAKU: (S) (V) work)" and ⁽²⁾"私は働いた(WATASHI WA HATARAITA: (S) (V) worked)" > ) ). ( In < this case > ), (S) < the addition of < the KANA [ of ] "た(TA)" > > (V) functions ( as < a symbol of < the past > > ), ( just like ( in < English > ) (S) < "ed" > (V) signifies (O) « ^(w)the past tense_| » ).
 But ( ^(id)in the case of_| < ◎Chinese { (S) < which > (V) is (C) 『 ( totally ) ^(w)ideographic_| 』 ( without < any ^(w)phonographic_| supplement ( for < ‡(V) making‡ (O) « ^(w)inflection_| » > ) > ) } > ), (S) < ^(w)verbs_| > (aV) can't (V) show (O) « any ^{^}distinction between^{^} ⁽¹⁾< the present >, ⁽²⁾< the past > ^{^}and^{^} ⁽³⁾< the future > ». ◎(S) < A Chinese > "我働" (V) (aV) can (V) mean ^{^}either^{^} ⁽¹⁾(O) « "(S) (V) work (the present)" », ⁽²⁾(O) « "(S) (V) worked (the past)" » ^{^}or^{^} ⁽³⁾(O) « "(S) (aV) will (V) work (the future)" » ( in < the same form > ), { (S) < the ^{^}distinction^{^} of < which > > (aV) must ＼ (aV) be ^{^}(V) made^{^} ／ ( from < contextual judgment > ) }. ( More ^(id)( specifically ) [ †speaking† ]_| ), (S) < the ^(w)Chinese character_| "了(LA)" > (V) works ( to (V) signify ^{^}either^{^} (O) « ⁽¹⁾"the past"(過去:KAKO: (S) (V) worked) ^{^}or^{^} ⁽²⁾"the perfect"(完了:KANRYOU: (S) ↑ (aV) have (V) worked ↑ ) ^(*)context » ), but (S) < it > ^(*)(V) is ^{( １ )}(C) 『 ( merely ) a temporal ^(w)adverb_| 』 ― a Chinese ^(id)equivalent ^(*)to_| < ⁽¹⁾"^(id)in the past_|" or ⁽²⁾"already" ^(*)( in < English > ) >, not ^{( ２ )}(C) 『 an ^(w)inflected form_| of < a ^(w)verb_| > 』. (S) < ^(w)Verbs_| > ( themselves ) (aV) can never (V) change ( in < Chinese language > ), ( ^(id)due to_| < the ( purely ) ^(w)ideographic_| structure of < their ‡writing‡ system > > ).
 ( In < Japanese > ), (S) < the presence of < KANA > > (aV) can (V) modify (O) « "我働" » ( ^(*)into ⁽¹⁾< "我ハ働ク(WARE WA HATARAKU:(S) (V) work)" > or ⁽²⁾< "我働カン(WARE HATARAKAN: (S) (aV) will (V) work)" > or ⁽³⁾< "我働ケリ(WARE HATARAKERI: (S) (V) worked, or (S) ↑ (aV) have (V) worked ↑ )" > ) ( (S) < as > ＼ (aV) is (V) well-^(id)known to_| ／ < ◎all Japanese folks { with < ◎ordinary ^(w)educational background_| { [ (S) < which > (V) is ] (C) 『 ^{^}enough^{^} 』 ( ^{^}to^{^} ↑ (aV) have ＼ (aV) been ( painfully ) (V) trained ／ ↑ in < "漢文(KANBUN, ( locally ) modified Chinese sentences)" > ( at < school > ) } > ) } > ).
 ( Anyway ), (S) < temporal distinctions > (V) are (C) 『 [ ◎the point ] { where (S) < the speakers of < ⁽¹⁾{ Chinese } and ⁽²⁾{ Japanese } ^(*)languages > > ^(*)(V) need ⁽¹⁾(O) « special attention » and ⁽²⁾ ＼ ^(id)‡(V) getting‡ (C) 『 used to 』_| ／ } 』; (S) < they > (aV) should ＼ (aV) be (V) examined ／ ( ^(id)in { more } detail_| ) ( in < the next section > ).